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From Idols to Icons: The Emergence of Christian Devotional Images in Late Antiquity
Robin M. Jensen
University of California Press (2022). 244 pp.
Having dedicated much of her career to tracing the origins and evolution of Christian practices in late antiquity, Robin Jensen—currently the Patrick O’Brien Professor of Theology at the University of Notre Dame—has produced yet another significant work on this topic. As one of the foremost experts in the field, Jensen has developed a deep understand ing of the intersection between early Christian art and the theological and liturgical developments of the time. Drawing from her extensive knowledge of late antiquity, she offers a comprehensive and insightful exploration that has already been recognised as a tour de force on early Christian iconography.
The book is carefully structured to guide readers through the early development of Christian iconography in the first centuries AD. In Chapter 1, Jensen challenges the historical assumption put forth by later writers such as John Calvin and Henry Chadwick that early Christians avoided icons due to the Decalogue’s prohibition against creating images of idols (Exod 20:4). She argues that the earliest critiques of icon use in worship were not rooted in the Decalogue but in the belief that artifacts and works of art were merely human-made objects venerated through common traditions (p. 24). The true God, she explains, could not be fully captured or represented by physical objects. Ultimately, what mattered most to God was “an honest heart, a pure mind, and a clear conscience” (p. 5). This critique, however, was not exclusive to Christian writers. Non-Christian Graeco-Roman thinkers also criticized the belief that material objects could embody the divine. As Jensen observes, “early Christian apologists frequently appealed to and even echoed critiques espoused by respected pagan philosophers” (p. 23).
Jensen expands on this argument in Chapter 2, where she explores how some early Christian writers grappled with the question of whether the invisible God could, in fact, be represented through human-made artifacts. The evidence suggests that the belief that God could not be represented in human forms led to the view that any attempt to do so was not only foolish but also dangerous. Jensen summarizes Augustine’s reasoning on this point: “Why would anyone worship an anthropomorphic representation of the sun instead of worshiping the sun itself?” (p. 52).
It is at this juncture that Jensen shifts focus in Chapters 3 to 5, illustrating that, while early Christian writers certainly expressed caution and criticism regarding the use of artifacts in worship, there was also a notable emergence of art and icons within Christian communities. She traces the development of Christian pictorial art from the late second century, revealing that Christians began to create artistic depictions of historical figures—Jesus among them—remarkably early. This, of course, raises the question of the relative lack of substantial evidence for distinctly Christian art prior to the late second century. For Jensen, the answer lies in the fact that Christians adopted Graeco-Roman visual culture, so much so that “their artifacts were basically indistinguishable from those of non-Christians” (p. 75).
Jensen is careful not to push the argument too far in one direction. On the one hand, she cautions against drawing definitive conclusions from critiques of artistic depictions of Christian figures, recognizing that many (if not all) of these critiques have complex textual histories and disputed authenticity (p. 96). On the other hand, she highlights the concerns some writers had about the issue of likeness: how could an artist accurately represent a long-dead saint or, indeed, Christ?
The key—and perhaps one of Jensen’s most compelling points in the book—is that Christian writers were not primarily opposed to the use of images of God and saints. Instead, their concern was with what these images conveyed about the Trinity and the divine nature (p. 71). A striking example of this is found in Chapter 6. Jensen observes that while early depictions of Jesus in the third century show him beardless with long, curly hair, the trinitarian controversies of the early fourth century coincided with the emergence of a more mature, stronger, and bearded image of Jesus. This shift, she argues, was meant to ensure that Christ was understood to be equal with the Father (pp. 116–23).
In the final chapters, Jensen expands the scope of her argument in several directions. Chapter 7 explores the fourth-century development of the belief that material objects (including artifacts and icons) could reveal and mediate divine presence. Chapter 8 continues this discussion, highlighting the growing recognition in the fourth century of relics, sacred spaces, and icons as links between the earthly and heavenly realms.
In summary, Jensen, a leading expert in the field, presents a well-balanced perspective on whether and to what extent early Christians used and produced icons. She offers a clear overview of early critiques and warnings against the use of icons and artifacts in Christian worship, while also demonstrating the early use of Christian art. Jensen shows that it is not accurate to simply conclude, as Calvin and Chadwick once did, that early Christians rejected icons based solely on the Decalogue. Instead, the evidence reveals both critical opposition but also significant, early use and elaboration of icons and art among Christian communities.
Alberto Solano Zatarain (MPhil, University of Oxford) is an Assistant Minister at Oxford Presbyterian Church in Oxford, England. He is a member of the St. Hildegard Fellowship of the Center for Pastor Theologians.
